Urban Space in the Ottoman World

curated by Chris Gratien and Kalliopi Amygdalou
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"Urban Space in the Ottoman World" is a running series of podcasts dedicated to the history of Istanbul and other Ottoman cities. It examines unique aspects of Ottoman cities as well as parallels between urban spaces in the Ottoman world and elsewhere. It explores the city as an arena for politics, power struggle and intellectual fermentations; a space of social expression and negotiation; a product but also a generator of social and political action; a field of cultural interaction with the 'other'; a point of intersection of imperial, national and religious identities; a window to explore multiple histories and interactions; a palimpsest. The podcasts bring forward the complexity of the Ottoman city, undermining strict definitions of the 'modern' or the 'islamic' and simplifying categorisations of 'East' and 'West'. This series takes listeners outside of the palace to live the experiences of a wide range of social classes, dabble in the sights, sounds, and tastes of Ottoman Istanbul, and understand how people felt about the urban environment and used architecture and urban space as a means of political and cultural expression.

Currently our series contains 14 podcast episodes featuring 25 contributors available for play or download through our podcast feeds. Let us know what you'd like to hear next!

Click the tabs below to explore the episodes in this series

Introduction

Throughout the Ottoman period, the vast majority of the empire's population would have been broadly characterized as rural. But even as peasants and pastoralists made up the bulk of the Ottoman body politic, cities played a critical role in the making of the Ottoman state and its projection of power into the provinces. This running series on urban space in the Ottoman Empire is dedicated to the exploration of different political, socioeconomic, and cultural facets of Ottoman and post-Ottoman cities. (click to read more)

The Ottoman Empire was home to some of the largest cities in the Mediterranean. The Middle East was one of the most heavily urban regions of the early modern world (Raymond 1984). The city that defined the Ottoman urban experience was Constantinople, a relatively small place with only tens of thousands of inhabitants at the time of the Ottoman conquest in 1453. After replacing Edirne as the new Ottoman capital, it began to grow, and by the mid-sixteenth century its population eclipsed half a million. That population would fluctuate over time; during much of the seventeenth century, the Ottoman capital was arguably the largest city in the world. It grew rapidly during the last decades of the Ottoman period so that at the time of the First World War in 1914, Istanbul's population exceeded one million, and while Istanbul today is many times that size, the city's late Ottoman population would not be overshadowed until the urbanization boom of the 1950s.

These are rough estimates of the population of Ottoman Istanbul based on compiled data of a number of authors. While exact figures are difficult to ascertain, the sources consistently indicate a small population of Istanbul as of the Ottoman conquest during the mid-15th century, followed by continued rise into the 17th century and a modest contraction that was reversed over the course of the 19th century. (Sources: Behar 1996; Chandler 1987; wikipedia)

Istanbul was by no means the only large city in the Ottoman Empire. Although smaller under the Ottomans than it had been during the preceding Mamluk period, the population of Cairo in Egypt numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Edirne, Bursa, Izimr, Aleppo, and Damascus were all Ottoman cities that were home to over 100,000 people for some period before the nineteenth century. During the last century of Ottoman rule, many Ottoman cities grew considerably, especially Mediterranean ports such as Salonika (Thessaloniki), Izmir, and Beirut that swelled due to a rise in maritime trade. But the history of Ottoman cities also illustrates that such spaces can be ephemeral, characterized not by stable population or consistent rise but rather significant fluctuation due to the effects of economic change, war, disasters, and shifts in political centers of gravity.

Many of the cultural features typically associated with Ottoman society were products of urban space. Important Ottoman institutions took shape in the cities, which served as a platform for various forms of art, architecture and literary production. Cities were also important financial centers, and even typically rural activities such as agricultural production were ultimately tied to cities through powerful mercantile networks maintained by urban merchants and lenders.

The urban legacy of the Ottoman Empire extends well beyond the borders of present-day Turkey. The Ottoman state at least briefly occupied the capitals of modern-day Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Macedonia, Albania, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Romania, Hungary, Kosovo, Montenegro, Georgia, Armenia, Syria, Lebanon, Israel/Palestine, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Iraq. The history of urban space in the Ottoman Empire concerns not only these regions but also global investigations into the transformation of cityscapes and urban societies.

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Sections
Echoes of the Ottoman Past
Layers of History in Modern Istanbul

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Istanbul's Historical Soundscape popular post Contributors: Chris Gratien, Emily Neumeier Episode No. 151 Release Date: 3 May 2014 Location: Kurtuluş, Istanbul

The Ottoman capital of Istanbul defined the urban experience in the empire for most of its history. Yet life in Istanbul was radically different across time. In order to wade into the layers of history embedded in the city of today, we recommend this episode about Istanbul's historical soundscape. In it, we explore the echoes of the Ottoman past that can be heard in the sounds of Istanbul's present, discussing the city's history through field recordings carried out in the city during the spring of 2014.

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Making Cities Ottoman ^{new release}
Urban Transformation and Ottoman Imperial Expansion

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Imperial Architecture in Ottoman Aleppo Contributors: Heghnar Watenpaugh, Chris Gratien, Emily Neumeier Episode No. 157 Release Date: 31 May 2014 Location: Beyoğlu, Istanbul

As the Ottoman state continued to expand its reach into new territories, particularly the formerly Mamluk regions of the Arab world, the cityscape became a site for the construction of an imperial image. Therefore, to understand the making of Ottoman cities, we must look not only to the bustling capital created by the ascendant empire but also to urban interventions in longstanding cities that came under Ottoman dominion. Our interview with Heghnar Watenpaugh about urban architecture in Ottoman Aleppo offers insightful reflection upon the ways in which buildings served as continual sites of political expression and contention in Ottoman cities.

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Edirne Across Time new release Contributors: Amy Singer, Chris Gratien, Yasmine Seale Episode No. 213 Release Date: 25 November 2015 Location: Koç RCAC, Istanbul

The urban history of the Ottoman Empire usually deals with subjects pertaining to the imperial capital of Istanbul. But Istanbul was only one of many important urban spaces in the empire. For example, the nearby city of Edirne, which was a significant city throughout the Ottoman period and preceded Istanbul as capital, has received considerably less attention despite its physical and symbolic centrality. In this episode, Amy Singer shares some of her research on the urban, architectural, and socioeconomic history of Edirne across centuries of historical transformation.

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The Sociopolitical Landscape of Ottoman Istanbul ^{new release}
Life in an Early Modern City

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Social Histories of Ottoman Istanbul new release Contributors: Ebru Boyar, Kate Fleet, Susanna Ferguson, Nir Shafir Episode No. 214 Release Date: 1 December 2015 Location: Koç RCAC, Istanbul

The city of Istanbul underwent vast transformations over nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule, but it nonetheless retained its place at the center of Ottoman urban life. In this episode, Kate Fleet and Ebru Boyar discuss some of the transformations and continuities that shaped the urban history of Istanbul between 1453 and 1923. Natural disasters, shifting gender relations and practices of health and hygiene, and the presence of the Sultan and his court not only marked Istanbul's urban fabric but also transformed the lives of its people; the way these changes were experienced depended in part on class, gender and occupation.

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The Sociopolitical World of Ottoman Hamams Contributors: Nina Ergin, Chris Gratien Episode No. 192 Release date: 5 July 2015 Location: Feriköy, Istanbul

Cities create dense networks of interaction that are embedded in the architectural and geographical features of the urban landscape. Urban spaces may sit at the intersection of economic, social, and political activities. To learn about the relationship between places, people, and politics in Ottoman Istanbul, we recommend this conversation with Nina Ergin about the world of bathhouses or hamams in eighteenth-century Istanbul.

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Slavery and Manumission in Ottoman Galata editor's pick Contributors: Nur Sobers-Khan, Chris Gratien, Nir Shafir Episode No. 181 Release Date: 11 December 2014 Location: Cihangir, Istanbul

The legal and social environments surrounding slavery and manumission during the early modern period varied from place to place and profession to profession. In this episode, Nur Sobers-Khan presents her exciting research on the lives of a particular population of slaves in Ottoman Galata during the late sixteenth century, how they were classified and documented under Ottoman law, and the terms by which they were able to achieve their freedom.

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Istanbul Neighborhoods
Cities within the City

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Bir Osmanlı Mahallenin Doğumu ve Ölümü Contributors: Cem Behar, Emrah Safa Gürkan, Kahraman Şakul Episode No. 167 Release Date: 26 July 2014 (Türkçe) Location: Üsküdar, Istanbul

Many of the neighborhoods in the historical peninsula of Istanbul bore witness to centuries of Ottoman history and display the marks of the city's various transformations. In this podcast, Cem Behar discuss his research on centuries of history in the historical neighborhood of Kasap İlyas and the demographic and socioeconomic change that has occurred since the sixteenth century.

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The History and Transformation of Eyüp Contributors: Timur Hammond, Chris Gratien Episode No. 34 Release Date: 21 August 2011 Location: İSAM, Üsküdar

The urban history of Istanbul has long been a favorite topic of Ottoman historians, but more recently the history of neighborhoods has emerged as a way of understanding social change in ways that can challenge or confirm larger narratives. In this podcast, Timur Hammond explains the ways in which Eyüp, a peripheral but important neighborhood of Istanbul, has evolved through the centuries as it has been both consciously and unconsciously recreated as an "Islamic space."

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Refashioned Cityscapes
Architecture in Ottoman Istanbul

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Producing Pera popular post Contributors: Nilay Özlü, Chris Gratien Episode No. 90 Release Date: 25 January 2013 Location: Beyoğlu, Istanbul

During the nineteenth century, the urban space of Istanbul was transformed by actors consciously involved in reshaping the face of Ottoman and high society in this European capital. In this episode, Nilay Özlü explores the culture and architecture of the Pera neighborhood during these formative years through the story of three generations of the Vallaury family, Levantine Istanbulites who rose to prominence in the fields of cuisine, cafe culture, and finally architecture through the figure of Alexander Vallaury.

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The Age of Ports
The Late Ottoman Mediterranean

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Salonica in the Age of Ports Contributors: Sotiris Dimitriadis, Chris Gratien, Nir Shafir Episode No. 94 Release Date: 23 February 2013 Location: Feriköy, Istanbul

The rise of maritime trade in the Mediterranean caused a number of Ottoman ports to swell with economic activity and population during the last decades of the Ottoman period. In these cosmopolitan port cities, public space and architecture sat at the center of questions of social transformation. Our interview with Sotiris Dimitriadis on the rise of Salonika (modern-day Thessaloniki, Greece) explores these economic and social transformations in a quintessential Ottoman port.

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Enjoying the City
The Transformation of Leisure in late Ottoman Cities

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Bathing in the Bosphorus Contributors: Burkay Pasin, Kalliopi Amygdalou Episode No. 145 Release Date: 15 February 2014 Location: Izmir, Turkey

The public bath or hamam was a fixture of most Ottoman towns. When interest in seaside summer spaces grew during the nineteenth century, this urban space was adapted to an aquatic one in the form of sea baths that littered the Bosphorus and appeared in some other coastal cities of the Ottoman Empire. In this episode, Burkay Pasin offers an overview of this emergent public space, which he describes as a transitional point in the transition from the private, gender segregated spaces of the hamam to the form of the public beaches found in Turkey today.

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Hayretle Seyret Contributors: Nezih Erdoğan, Serkan Şavk Episode No. 128 Release Date: 3 November 2013 (Türkçe) Location: Izmir, Turkey

Public entertainment is another aspect of leisure in the urban setting. Our episode with Nezih Erdoğan explores the role of "the spectacle" in cities and the introduction of cinema in Ottoman Istanbul.

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Osmanlı Döneminde Bursa Otelleri Contributors: İsmail Yaşayanlar, Elçin Arabacı, Chris Gratien Episode No. 120 Release Date: 30 August 2013 (Türkçe) Location: Kurtuluş, Istanbul

With the rise of travel and tourism during the late nineteenth century, Ottoman cities were not only spaces enjoyed by locals but also growing numbers of tourists from different regions of the world. This phenomenon extended not only to the Ottoman capital of Istanbul but also nearby cities such as Bursa. To learn more about this phenomenon, we recommend this conversation with İsmail Yaşayanlar about the hotel industry and the world surrounding it in late Ottoman Bursa.

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Moving in the City
Social Histories of Infrastructure

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Transportation and Public Space in Ottoman Istanbul Contributors: James Ryan, Samuel Dolbee Episode No. 96 Release Date: 16 March 2013 Location: New York, NY

The spread of public transportation in the form of boats and trams in late Ottoman Istanbul changed the lived geography of the city and created new public spaces of interaction. In this episode, Jim Ryan discusses the debates surrounding social conduct and gender relations on the trams and how this new mode of transport fit into the larger transformations of Ottoman urban space.

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Bibliography

This reading list about art, architecture, and the city in the Ottoman world was created by OHP librarian Heather Hughes and Lydia Harrington, doctoral student in History of Art and Architecture at Boston University.

Books

Akcan, Esra. Architecture in Translation: Germany, Turkey, and the Modern House. Durham: Duke University Press, 2012.

AlSayyad, Nezar. Cairo: Histories of a City. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011.

Arnaud, Jean-Luc. Le Caire: Mise En Place D'une Ville Moderne, 1867-1907 : Des Intérêts Du Prince Aux Sociétés Privées. Arles: Sindbad, 1998.

Arnaud, Jean-Luc. Damas: Urbanisme Et Architecture, 1860-1925 : Essai. Arles: Actes Sud-Sindbad, 2005.

Barillari, Diana and Godoli, Ezio. Istanbul 1900: Art Nouveau Architecture and Interiors.
New York: Rizzoli, 1996.

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. Egypt's Adjustment to Ottoman Rule: Institutions, Waqf and Architecture in Cairo, 16th and 17th Centuries. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994.

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris, Nicholas Warner, and Bernard O'Kane. The Minarets of Cairo: Islamic Architecture from the Arab Conquest to the End of the Ottoman Empire. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010.

Bernhardsson, Magnus T. Reclaiming a Plundered Past: Archaeology and Nation Building in Modern Iraq. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.

Bertram, Carel. Imagining the Turkish House: Collective Visions of Home. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008.

Blair, Sheila, Jonathan Bloom, and Richard Ettinghausen. The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. New Haven [Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994.

Bozdoğan, Sibel. Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001.

Çelik, Zeynep. Empire, Architecture, and the City: French-ottoman Encounters, 1830-1914. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008

Çelik, Zeynep. The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986

Crinson, Mark. Empire Building: Orientalism and Victorian Architecture. London: Routledge, 1996.

Cross and Leiser, Cross, Toni M. and Leiser, Gary. A Brief History of Ankara. Indian Ford Press: Vacaville, California, 2000.

Eastmond, Antony. Art and Identity in Thirteenth-Century Byzantium: Hagia Sophia and the Empire of Trebizond. Aldershot [etc.: Ashgate, 2004.

Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Court. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013.

Goodwin, Godfrey. A History of Ottoman Architecture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.

Grabar, Oleg. Islamic Visual Culture, 1100-1800. Aldershot, Hampshire, Eng: Ashgate, 2006.

Gül, Murat. The Emergence of Modern Istanbul: Transformation and Modernisation of a City. London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2009.

Hamadeh, Shirine. The City's Pleasures: Istanbul in the Eighteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008.

Howard, Deborah. Venice & the East: The Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture, 1100-1500. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.

Kafescioğlu, Çiğdem. Constantinopolis/istanbul: Cultural Encounter, Imperial Vision, and the Construction of the Ottoman Capital. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009.

Kuban, Doğan. Sinan's Art and Selimiye. Beşiktaş, İstanbul: Economic and Social History Foundation, 1997.

Kuran, Aptullah. Sinan: The Grand Old Master of Ottoman Architecture. Washington, D.C: Institute of Turkish Studies, 1987.

Leeuwen, Richard . Waqfs and Urban Structures: The Case of Ottoman Damascus. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Print.

Lifchez, Raymond. The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

Matthews, Henry. Mosques of Istanbul: Including the Mosques of Bursa and Edirne. Istanbul: Scala, 2010.

Meinecke, Michael. Patterns of Stylistic Changes in Islamic Architecture: Local Traditions Versus Migrating Artists. New York: New York University Press, 1996.

Milstein, Rachel. Miniature Painting in Ottoman Baghdad. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazdâ, 1990.

Necipoğlu, Gülru. The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.

Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. New York, N.Y: Architectural History Foundation, 1991.

Raymond, André. Arab Cities in the Ottoman Period: Cairo, Syria, and the Maghreb. Aldershot, Hampshire, Great Britain: Ashgate/Variorum, 2002.

Sanders, Paula. Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-Century Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2008.

Shaw, Wendy M. K. Ottoman Painting: Reflections of Western Art from the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic. London: I.B. Tauris, 2011.

Shaw, Wendy M. K. Possessors and Possessed: Museums, Archaeology, and the Visualization of History in the Late Ottoman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

Thys-Şenocak, Lucienne. Ottoman Women Builders: The Architectural Patronage of Hadice Turhan Sultan. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2006.

Totah, Faedah M. Preserving the Old City of Damascus. Syracuse, NY : Syracuse University Press, , 2014.

Watenpaugh, Heghnar Z. The Image of an Ottoman City: Imperial Architecture and Urban Experience in Aleppo in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Leiden: Brill, 2004.

Weber, Stefan. Damascus: Ottoman Modernity and Urban Transformation (1808-1918). Aarhus University Press: 2009.

Yeomans, Richard. The Art and Architecture of Ottoman Istanbul. Reading, Berkshire [England: Garnet Publishing, 2012.

Yürekli, Zeynep. Architecture and Hagiography in the Ottoman Empire: The Politics of Bektashi Shrines in the Classical Age. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate, 2012.

Żygulski, Zdzisław. Ottoman Art in the Service of the Empire. New York: New York University Press, 1992.

Edited Volumes

AlSayyad, Nezar. Hybrid Urbanism: On the Identity Discourse and the Built Environment. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2001.

AlSayyad, Nezar, Irene A. Bierman, and Nasser O. Rabbat. Making Cairo Medieval. Lanham [Md.: Lexington Books, 2005.

Bahrani, Zainab, Zeynep Çelik, and Edhem Eldem. Scramble for the Past: A Story of Archaeology in the Ottoman Empire, 1753-1914. Istanbul: SALT, 2011.

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris and Stephen Vernoit. Islamic Art in the 19th Century. Brill, 2015.

Bierman, Irene A, Rifaʻat A. Abou-El-Haj, and Donald Preziosi. The Ottoman City and Its Parts: Urban Structure and Social Order. New Rochelle, N.Y: A.D. Caratzas, 1991.

Bozdoğan, Sibel, Julia Bailey, and Gülru Necipoğlu. History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "lands of Rum". Leiden: Brill, 2007.

Cinar, Alev, and Thomas Bender. Urban Imaginaries: Locating the Modern City. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.

Foster, Sabiha. Islam + Architecture. Chichester: Wiley-Academy, 2004.

Frishman, Martin, Hasan-Uddin Khan, and Mohammad Al-Asad. The Mosque: History, Architectural Development & Regional Diversity. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994.

Gharipour, Mohammad. The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2012.

Hanssen, Jens, Thomas Philipp, and Stefan Weber. The Empire in the City: Arab Provincial Capitals in the Late Ottoman Empire. Würzburg: Ergon in Kommission, 2002.

Isenstadt, Sandy, and Kishwar Rizvi. Modernism and the Middle East: Architecture and Politics in the Twentieth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008.

Kennedy, Hugh. Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria: From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period. Leiden: Brill, 2006

Reina Lewis, Mary Roberts and Zeynep İnankur (eds), The Poetics and Politics of Place: Ottoman Istanbul and British Orientalism (Seattle and Istanbul: Pera Museum and University of Washington Press, 2011)

Sluglett, Peter. The Urban Social History of the Middle East: 1750-1950. Syracuse University Press, 2008.

Thys-Şenocak, Lucienne, Çiğdem Kafescioğlu, and Günhan Danışman. Aptullah Kuran Için Yazılar: Essays in Honor of Aptullah Kuran / Editors, Çiğdem Kafescioğlu, Lucienne Thys-Şenocak ; Consulting Editor, Günhan Danışman. İstanbul: YKY, 1999.

Chapters in Books

Artan, Tülay and Irvin Cemil Schick, “Ottomanizing Pornotopia: Changing Visual Codes in Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Erotic Miniatures,” in Francesca Leoni and Mika Natif, eds. Eros and Sexuality in Islamic Art (Surrey, England and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2013), pp. 157-207.

Bozdoğan, Sibel. “Turkish architecture between Ottomanism and modernism (1873-1931).”  Ways to Modernity in Greece and Turkey: Encounters with Europe, 1850-1950. Eds. Phrankoudakē, Anna, and Çağlar Keyder. London: I.B. Tauris, 2007.

Denny, W.B..  “The palace, power and the arts,” Palace of Gold & Light: Treasures from the Topkapi, Istanbul. (Palace Arts Foundation, 2000), 16-25.

Kafesçioǧlu, Çiğdem. “Heavenly and Unblessed, Splendid and Artless: The Mosque Complex of Mehmed II in Istanbul in the Eyes of Its Contemporaries,” in Essays in Honor of Aptullah Kuran, edited by Çiǧdem Kafesçioǧlu and Lucienne Thys-Şenocak (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Publications, 1999): 211-22.

Kolluoğlu, Biray. “Cityscapes and modernity: Smyrna Morphing into İzmir.” Ways to Modernity in Greece and Turkey: Encounters with Europe, 1850-1950. Eds. Phrankoudakē, Anna, and Çağlar Keyder. London: I.B. Tauris, 2007.

Kostof, Spiro. “An Urban Contrast: Cairo and Florence,”A History of Architecture: Settings and
Rituals, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1995), 363-73

Kostof,  Spiro. “Istanbul and Venice,” A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, 2nd ed.
(Oxford, 1995), 453-83

Necipoǧlu, Gülru. “The suburban landscape of sixteenth-century Istanbul as a mirror of classical Ottoman garden culture.” Gardens in the Time of the Great Muslim Empires: Theory and Design. Ed. Petruccioli, Attilio. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997.

Necipoğlu, Gülrü. "A Kanun for the State, a Canon for the Arts: Conceptualizing the Classical Synthesis of Ottoman Art and Architecture," in Soliman le magnifique et son temps, pp. 195-216.

Pallini, Christina. “Geographic theatres, port landscapes and architecture in the Eastern Mediterranean : Salonica, Alexandria, İzmir.” Cities of the Mediterranean: From the Ottomans to the Present Day. Eds. Kolluoğlu, Biray, and Meltem Toksözö. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010.

Rabbat, Nasser. The formation of the neo-mamluk style in modern Egypt. Anderson, Stanford, and Martha D. Pollak. The Education of the Architect: Historiography, Urbanism, and the Growth of Architectural Knowledge : Essays Presented to Stanford Anderson. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1997.

Yerolympos, Alexandra. “New patterns of urban development in the Aegean Islands, 1850-1920s .” Ways to Modernity in Greece and Turkey: Encounters with Europe, 1850-1950. Eds. Phrankoudakē, Anna, and Çağlar Keyder. London: I.B. Tauris, 2007.

Primary Sources

Hafız, Hüseyin A, and Howard Crane. The Garden of the Mosques: Hafiz Hüseyin Al-Ayvansarayî's Guide to the Muslim Monuments of Ottoman Istanbul. Leiden: Brill, 2000.

Sinan, Mimar, Howard Crane, Esra Akin, and Gülru Necipoğlu. Sinan's Autobiographies: Five Sixteenth-Century Texts. Leiden: Brill, 2006.

Articles

Abu-Lughod, Janet. “The Islamic City--Historic Myth, Islamic Essence, and Contemporary Relevance.” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 19. 2 ( 1987), pp. 155-176

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210

Aygen, Zeynep. "A Ship Sailing East With Its Voyagers Travelling West: Architectural Saints, City Fathers And Design Patrons In The Late Ottoman Empire." Journal Of Design History 20.2 (2007): 93-108.

Bagci, Serpil. “Portrayals of the Sultans in Illustrated Histories of the Ottoman Dynasty,” Islamic Art VI (2009): 113-127

Baydar, Gülsüm. "Teaching Architectural History In Turkey And Greece: The Burden Of The Mosque And The Temple." Journal Of The Society Of Architectural Historians 62.1 (2003): 84-91.

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. "The Complex of Sultan Mahmud I in Cairo." Muqarnas: an Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World. 28 (2011): 195-219.

Buyukmihci, Gonca1, Zuhal Ozcan, and Hale1 Kozlu. "Three Greek Orthodox Churches From Kayseri, Turkey, And The Ethnic Composition Of Ottoman Society." Transactions Of The Ancient Monuments Society 51.(2007): 31-51.

Cerasi, Maurice. “The Urban and Architectural Evolution of the Istanbul Divanyolu: Urban Aesthetics and Ideology in Ottoman Town Building,” Muqarnas 22 (2005):189-232.

Carroll, Lynda, Adam Fenner, and Øystein S. LaBianca. "The Ottoman Qasr At Hisban: Architecture, Reform, And New Social Relations." Near Eastern Archaeology 69.3/4 (2006): 138-145.

Çelik, Zeynep. “New Approaches to the "Non-Western" City.”Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 58.3 (1999): 374-381.

Deǧirmenci, Tülün. “An Illustrated Mecmua: The Commoner’s Voice and the Iconography of the Court in Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Painting.” Ars Orientalis 41 (2011):

Ergin, Nina. "The Soundscape Of Sixteenth-Century Istanbul Mosques: Architecture And Qur'an Recital." Journal Of The Society Of Architectural Historians 67.2 (2008): 204-221.

Ersoy, Ersoy. A” Sartorial Tribute to Late Tanzimat Ottomanism: The Elbise-i 'Osmaniyye Album,” Muqarnas 29 (2003): 187-208.

Fetvaci, Emine. "From Print To Trace: An Ottoman Imperial Portrait Book And Its Western European Models." Art Bulletin95.2 (2013): 243-268.

Hamadeh, Shirine. "Ottoman Expressions Of Early Modernity And The “Inevitable” Question Of Westernization." Journal Of The Society Of Architectural Historians 63.1 (2004): 32-51.

Howard, D. “Venice between east and west: Marc'Antonio Barbaro and Palladio's church of the
Redentore.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 62 (2003) 306-325

Kezer, Zeynep. "Contesting Urban Space in Early Republican Ankara." Journal of Architectural Education. 52.1 (1998): 11-19.

Mathews, Annie-Christine Daskalakis. "Mamluk Elements In The Damascene Decorative System Of The Eighteenth And Nineteenth Centuries." Artibus Asiae 66.2 (2006): 69-96.

Maksudyan, Nazan. “Orphans, Cities, and the State: Vocational Orphanages (Islâhhanes) and Reform in the Late Ottoman Urban Space.” Int. J. Middle East Stud. 43 (2011), 493–511.

Necipoğlu, Gülrü. “Framing the Gaze in Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Palaces,” Ars Orientalis 23 (1993), pp. 303-12

Necipoǧlu, Gülrü. “Visual Cosmopolitanism and Creative Translation: Artistic Conversations with Renaissance Italy in Mehmed II’s Constantinople,” Muqarnas 29 (2012): 1-82

Ojalvo, Roysi. "Showcasing Istanbul's Jewish Past." Future Anterior: Journal Of Historic Preservation History Theory & Criticism 11.2 (2014): 48-63.

Overton, Keelan. "A History Of Ottoman Art History Through The Private Database Of Edwin Binney, 3rd." Journal Of Art Historiography 6 (2012): 1-19.

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Reference

Sinclair, Susan, C H. Bleaney, and Suárez P. García. Bibliography of Art and Architecture in the Islamic World: Volume 1. Leiden: BRILL, 2012.

Sinclair, Susan. Bibliography of Art and Architecture in the Islamic World (2 Vol. Set). Leiden: BRILL, 2012.